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The History Of Utilitarianism John Stuart Mill ( 1806-1873...

Act utilitarianism is a theory of ethics which will state that a person s act is as morally right if and only if it produces at least as much happiness as any other act that the person would perform at that particular time. To understand how an act utilitarianism works, you have to compare the consequences for example if you decided to watch television all day tomorrow to the consequences of your doing some sort of charity work instead. You could produce more overall happiness in the world by doing charity work tomorrow than by watching television all day. According to act utilitarianism, then, the right thing for you to do tomorrow is to go out and do some sort of good in the world as in charity work; to utilitarian’s it is wrong for you to stay home and watch television all day. In the history of utilitarianism John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was an important philosopher who in the 19th century was an important defender of personal liberty. When it comes Mills theories he has made a major impact on philosophical work and also an impact when it comes too things economically, politically, and socially. Mill defines utilitarianism as a theory that is based on the principle that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. He also adds that happiness is a pleasure in the absence of pain. He also begins to argue that pleasure can be different when it comes to the different qualities and quantities,Show MoreRelatedUtilitarianism, By John Stuart Mill854 Words   |  4 PagesJohn Stuart Mill, among other things, was an English philosopher and economist who lived from 1806 to 1873. Mill grew up being immersed in the principles of utilitarianism. Mill’s essay on utilitarianism, titled Utilitarianism, was written to debunk misconceptions of and to provide support for the ideology. Mill’s essay and argument span five chapters, where his discussions range from definitions, misconceptions, rewards, methods, and validity. Utilitarianism is generally held to be the view thatRead MoreJohn Stuart Mill On The Modern World1544 Words   |  7 Pageswritings on philosophy had influence on people all over the world. Centuries later, you can still use his work as a point of reference for issues facing the modern world. His writings were such that they brought a new dimension in religion, law and history. One of his more famous writings was in the form of a paper which includes the ‘Metaphysics of Morals’ which form the basis for this paper. His view of morals is that our desires and emotions are categorically imperative, meaning that they are conscienceRead MoreStuart Mill and John Locke Conception of Freedom Essay1913 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction John Locke (1632-1704) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) are two important thinkers of liberty in modern political thought. They have revolutionized the idea of human freedom at their time and have influenced many political thinkers afterwards. Although their important book on human freedom, John Locke’s The Second Treatise of Government (1689) and John Mill’s On Liberty (1859), are separated 170 years, some scholars thinks that they are belonging to the same conceptual tradition, EnglishRead MoreBentham And Mill ( 1806-1873 ) And John Stuart Mill Essay1302 Words   |  6 Pagesmost important utilitarian’s in history are Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Bentham and Mill were very important individuals when it came to philosophy. Their theories has had a major impact both on philosophical work and also an impact when it comes too economically, politically, and socially. Utilitarian’s are consequentialist individuals who believe t hat actions are right inasmuch as they promote happiness. But Mill defines utilitarianism as a theory based on the principleRead MoreThe Differences in John Stuart Mills and Jeremy Benthams Versions of Utilitarianism2151 Words   |  9 PagesThe Differences in John Stuart Mills and Jeremy Benthams Versions of Utilitarianism In what ways did John Stuart Mills version of utilitarianism differ from that of Jeremy Bentham? Which do you consider preferable? The Cambridge International Dictionary of English defines utilitarianism as the system of thought which states that the best action or decision in a particular situation is the one which most benefits the most people. This is the main idea of the system of thought and it isRead MoreMill vs. Bentham2787 Words   |  12 PagesIn what ways did John Stuart Mills version of utilitarianism differ from that of Jeremy Bentham? Which do you consider preferable? The Cambridge International Dictionary of English defines utilitarianism as the system of thought which states that the best action or decision in a particular situation is the one which most benefits the most people. This is the main idea of the system of thought and it is from this the beliefs and opinions of John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873), Jeremy Bentham (1748Read MoreThe Harsh Reality: Crime and Punishment Essay1926 Words   |  8 Pagesmangled body. Raskolnikov believes that by committing the murder of the old woman, he is rightfully removing â€Å"a louse...a useless, loathsome, harmful creature† from society, a mentality of political nihilists (Dostoevsky 358). This also demonstrates utilitarianism - an ethical doctrine that states moral decisions should be founded upon the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. It is imperative to note that Raskolnikov is acting on supremely selfish impulses. Although he wishes to purgeRead MoreHistory of the Tobacco Industry2324 Words   |  9 PagesSpecialty tobacco shops History of the Tobacco Industry Tobacco and smoking has a long history that can be traced back to the 11th Century through he various developments till it became whet it is today as a multi billion industry with many players like Specialty tobacco shops. Though the pictorial evidence of smoking is estimated to be dated back to the 11th Century, it is believed that tobacco has existed in America as from the 1st Century. The discovery of cigarettes date back to theRead More Ethical Theories  and Major Moral Principles Essay5111 Words   |  21 Pagestheory is governed by two basic theories, with an additional five or six theories taking up the vast majority of the rest of the discussion. Over the course of the next few pages I will explain to you the basics of eight different ethical theories: utilitarianism, Kantian ethics, contractarianism, feminist or care-based ethics, natural law theory, Confucian ethics, intuitionism and ideal observer theory, and virtue ethics. I will tell you about some of the major proponents of the theory, some of its variationsRead More A Case Study Depicting the Importance of Ethics in Medicine Essay4544 Words   |  19 Pagesthat egoistic hedonism is when a person engages in moral action by acting in his or her own best interest (Thompson, 2000). The ethical theory of utilitarianism was developed by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806- 1873) (Hendrick, 2001; Thompson, 2000; Beauchamp Childress, 2009). According to Bentham’s theory of utilitarianism, the moral action to take is that which will would produce ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people’ (Hendrick, 2001,p. 18). Consequently

Case Study Manage Conflict

Questions: Read the below case study. Use your knowledge of conflict, stages of conflict and conflict resolution to answer the questions below. Joan had been working at Caf City for 9 months. She was only 18 but she enjoyed her work and was a very efficient employee. City Caf had decided they needed to employ a Supervisor. They placed a job advertisement in the Brisbane Courier Mail and started interviews. Joan was not happy with their decision to hire someone outside the establishment. She felt that she should be the first in line for this position given her time working for the caf. After interviews the caf hired a 25 year old called Kate. Kate had been working in the industry for 6 years and had excellent practical and professional skills. Kate took on the role with enthusiasm and looked forward to getting to know her fellow employees. Unfortunately over the following 4 weeks Kate felt that Joan was not very friendly towards her. Joan would mutter things under her breath, deliberately not perform tasks required, and would not talk to Kate unless necessary. Kate began to feel uncomfortable with the situation and thought that the problem needed to be addressed. She however did not feel confident in dealing with the situation and avoided the problem for another 3 weeks. Kate then decided to discuss her concerns with her Manager. 1. Would this situation be identified as conflict? Explain why. 2. What stage was this conflict at? Explain. 3. What do you feel caused this conflict? Explain 4. How did Kate identify that there was conflict occurring? 5. How did Joan feel? Were her feelings justified? 6. How did Joan contribute to the conflict? 7. How did Kate feel? Were her feelings justified? 8. How did Kate contribute to the conflict? 9. Explain the 5 conflict resolution strategies/styles a workplace manager can adopt? Identify and explain which strategy would be appropriate for resolving the conflict. 10. Explain the 5 steps to resolving conflict in a team environment. Apply these 5 steps to the above conflict scenario. 11. Who should be informed of this situation? Who should be involved in resolving the conflict and why? 12. What could have happened to prevent this conflict prior to Kate starting? 13. Explain how the manager may contribute to the escalation of the situation? Answers: 1. There are four types of conflict that can occur in a business organization. The types include interpersonal conflicts, conflicts due to lack of interest, conflicts due to limited resources and unclear definition of job roles. The type of conflict shown in this case study is interpersonal conflicts that refer to personal issues within an organization between individuals. This is evident from the reaction shown by Joan towards Kate, who was recently employed (Types of Conflict., 2016). 2. There are five stages of the conflict in the business organization. The first stage is the potential opposition and incompatibility which connects to the second stage of recognition followed by the third stage "intention" connecting to the fourth one "behavior" finally the last stage outlining the outcomes. The case showed here represents the second stage which is the recognition. The personal grudge and issues of Joan with Kate are well recognized and understood by Kate. She is yet to discuss with Joan about the issues (5 Stages of Conflict and Workplace Conflict Resolution, 2016). 3. Joan is an efficient employee and has been working for nine months in this cafe. Therefore, she is accustomed to every need and objectives of this establishment. She was dissatisfied because the cafe company put up an advertisement for hiring a supervisor and in doing so they were hiring people outside the establishment. Joan though that she was appropriate for the post. 4. Kate recognized that Joan was not happy with Kate becoming the supervisor by her behavior which showed signs and symptoms of dislike. Kate as observed and noted that Joan was deliberate in not doing her tasks properly. Moreover, Kate has also observed her murmuring silently in grudge. Joan would also not interact properly with Kate until and unless it is necessary. 5. Joan felt that injustice was done to her since she was from the establishment with experience. She felt that instead of hiring from outside her should have been selected as the supervisor given her experience. Her feelings are justified because she has contributed her efforts to the company for nine months, and she knows all about the company so it would have been a good idea to hire her instead of someone outside the establishment. 6. Joan's lack of understanding contributed to the conflict. She wasn't able to accept Kate and whatever the company did to hire the supervisor. Her unfriendly behavior contributed to the conflict. Joan wasn't being professional from her end and was violating the ethics that she should have while working in an organization 7. Kate herself did not contribute to the conflict as such. Kate was not even aware of the feelings of Joan and that she is dissatisfied with the company's decision to hire Kate. However, Kate could have initiated discussion and open sharing of this problem with Joan. Kate was newly employed. 8. Kate's feelings were justified. Kate felt uncomfortable Kate was efficient and has an experience of 6 years in the related industry. She was enthusiastic and looked forwards to establish a good relationship with all the employees but was not able to do so for Joan's behavior. Kate started feeling uncomfortable and unhappy because of the environment as created by Joan. 9. The five strategies that are adopted to minimize the conflict in an organization. The strategies are accommodation, which adapts and changes things according to the requirement of the opposition. The second one is the avoiding, which is avoiding the conflict to prevent any confrontation. The avoider hopes that by avoiding or rather delaying the conflict and its discussion, it will get resolved with time. However, avoidance might also result in further conflict. The avoidance takes time but at times are effective in dissolving the issue. Collaboration is another strategy. Collaboration is the integration of each or multiple employees towards a solution for the conflict. In doing so, a solution is created which is accepted by all. Therefore, collaboration is an efficient process n minimizing the conflict in the organization. Compromising is another step towards resolving the conflict in an organization. Compromising requires both the parties to negotiate to a point and compromise th eir demands up to a point were both can be satisfied. This strategy prevails most often in conflicts where the parties hold approximately equivalent power. Business owners frequently employ compromise during contract negotiations with other businesses when each party stands to lose something valuable, such as a customer or necessary service. Competition is another way out where both parties can compete and the winner wins by his/her capabilities." Competition operates as a zero-sum game, in which one side wins and other losses." In this case, competition would be most appropriate given the behaviour of Joan towards Kate (5 Conflict Management Styles at a Glance, 2011). 10. In a case of conflict among the team members of a team, the following strategies or steps can be implemented. The first step that can be taken is the preparations of the resolution by acknowledging the conflict, analysing it, preparing discussion and methods of cooperation, communication and agreeing to agreements. The next step would involve the analysing and understand the situation. This can be done by clarifying the situations and also listing out the problems and causes of it. This step also involves subdividing the team and then analyzing things separately. The next step is reaching an agreement after analyzing all the facts and figures and making the assumption; it is finally the time to reach an agreement based on the understanding of the team members. The last most valid step that needs priority is the prevention step. As we all know that prevention is better than cure. This concept needs to be implemented in his sector as well. Prevention involves the analysis of the po ssible conditions that may result in conflicts. The assumptions made collaboration, competitions, cooperation and much more. Prevention should be the priority of every company when it comes to the conflict management (Mindtools.com., 2016). 11. The manager and the team leader should be informed about the ongoing conflict in the organization because it them who does the decision making. The decision making procedure, recruitment and also team handling is the job of the team leader and the manger. The first line of managers, therefore, should be informed along with the human resource department. For resolving the conflict, the party in opposition needs to actively participate in the conflict management strategies. The team members and also other people might be involves depending upon the severity of the case. 12. Prevention is the best step that can be taken before the outcomes of the conflict. In this case, before Kate started working the managers and the people involved should have had an analysis of the possible causes of the hard feeling that Joan has for Kate. They should have gone for an open discussion with Kate and Joan in such cases. Joan should be counselled and compromising step should have been considered in such cases. At the same time Kate should also have been informed so that after starting, her behaviour towards Joan was different and open enough for discussion. 13. The manager may contribute to the conflict by inefficient communicating and lack of management skills to minimize the conflict or its onset. The manager's lack of communication may lead to improper treatment to Joan, who is feeling insecure. Manager's partiality may also escalate the conflict and lack of compromising and negotiation attributes. The manger, therefore, needs to analyse the situation and act accordingly with maximum humility to consider other's worth and demands in a sustainable and just manner. Therefore, managers play a very important role in the conflict management. References 5 Conflict Management Styles at a Glance. (2011).Sourcesofinsight.com. Retrieved 25 May 2016, 5 Stages of Conflict and Workplace Conflict Resolution. (2016).Udemy Blog. Retrieved 25 May 2016, Types of Conflict - Conflict Resolution, Definition of Conflict, Conflict Management Styles. (2016).Types of Conflict. Retrieved 25 May 2016.

When Communications Undermine Knowledge Management

Abstract Jensen’s 1998 article Communication or knowledge management? highlighted the developing kinship between organizational communications and knowledge management as a balm for mounting employee frustration. The following essay analyzes the state of organizational communications and knowledge management as of 2010.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on When Communications Undermine Knowledge Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The bond between these two disciplines, such as Jensen predicted, has cooled considerably, if indeed it ever did truly form. Reasons for this distance include the dynamic and often fractious relationship between communication, knowledge management, organizational structure and organizational culture. Prompted by what Bill Jensen, president and CEO of The Jensen Group characterized as a misinterpretation of roles on the part of organizational communicators, Jensen’s 1998 article Communication or knowledge management? highlighted the developing kinship between organizational communications and knowledge management as a balm for mounting employee frustration (Jensen, 1998). Jensen’s article highlighted an excessive focus on change announcements and context setting materials amongst organizational communicators at the time and a dearth of â€Å"clear, effective, useful day-to-day information and sense making† (Jensen, 1998). Employees seek â€Å"help in making sense of, using, and leveraging the information around us† Jensen argued (Jensen, 1998). â€Å"We’re seeking the ability to navigate through change for ourselves, but just too much information is buzzing past us to do so† (Jensen, 1998). Jensen urged communicators to shift away from the busy work of â€Å"key messages† and â€Å"town meetings† and focus more on â€Å"performance information† deemed pertinent to employees making decisions on the ground (Jensen, 1998). Jensen proposed a union of communication and knowledge management as the solution; in his words, communication and knowledge management are â€Å"very similar,† however knowledge management remains â€Å"more disciplined about capturing, organizing and tracking what we need to make decisions† (Jensen, 1998). Jensen defined knowledge management in 1998 as composed of â€Å"two basic disciplines: facilitating dialogues [and] organizing data for operations use;† Jensen lamented the absence of both disciplines from communication practice of the time (Jensen, 1998).Advertising Looking for essay on business communication? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The following essay analyzes the state of organizational communications and knowledge management as of 2010. The bond between these two disciplines, such as Jensen predicted, has cooled considerably, if indeed it ever did truly form. R easons for this distance include the dynamic and often fractious relationship between communication, knowledge management, organizational structure and organizational culture which Jensen’s jocular and rosy call to action appears to have overlooked. Everything that happens or doesn’t happen in an organization begins and ends with that organization’s culture. Given that organizations operate according to a hierarchy, the effectiveness of organizational communications remains wholly dependent on the communication skills of its leadership (Anaeto, 2010). Similarly, the overall vision and utility its leadership ascribes to organizational communications and knowledge management affects the perceived value of each by the organizational culture as a whole; if organizational communications and knowledge management receive only lip service from the leadership, they will be largely disregarded by employees. Similarly, if both organizational communicators and knowledge man agement professionals compete for credibility within an organization, employees receive conflicting information that serves personal interests, or worse, may feel â€Å"awash in so many change initiatives† (Abrahamson, 2004). Organizational communications undermines and in some cases damages knowledge management when the organization’s leadership either sees no value in it, or lacks the skills to implement it on the highest level of organizational culture. Organizational culture goes beyond language and communication materials, and how an organization’s culture understands (or doesn’t understand) knowledge management will be the determining factor in the overall success of communication. The bias for or against a union of organizational culture and knowledge management appears often in the â€Å"language that people use in their everyday conversation with other employees as well as formal organizational documents and communications† (World Bank, 20 10).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on When Communications Undermine Knowledge Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is important realize, as Anaeto (2010) astutely observes, that â€Å"it is difficult for culture to develop, survive, extend and generally succeed without communication. It follows therefore that when we talk of an organizational culture, we are looking at what is happening in the organization in terms of communication† (Anaeto, 2010). Organizational communications in essence communicate organizational culture both explicitly through employee communications, and implicitly through codified cultural assumptions about â€Å"how things are done around here,† and more to the point, â€Å"how people get ahead in this place†. Organizations themselves develop their own code of spoken and unspoken language, which typical ties in deeply with job security, promotion and financial reward. Tacit knowledge, the elusive content of employees’ minds that Jensen called â€Å"what we know but [have] not yet ‘captured’ in script- or database-format†¦is still best transferred during†¦communication. It’s estimated that 50 percent to 95 percent of transferred knowledge†¦occurs during oral communication† (Jensen, 1998). This may be true. However what is missing from Jensen analysis is the fact that an organization’s culture will necessarily affect the flow and availability of said tacit knowledge during oral communication. Underlying organizational culture assumptions drive communication. As Anaeto (2010) asserts, â€Å"the language of the organization member is the key to understanding the organizational culture† (Anaeto, 2010). For example, in an organization that promotes competition and in fighting amongst its employees, tacit knowledge becomes personal leverage. As a result, all knowledge, tacit and oth erwise, will be carefully guarded and managed and only shared strategically; in some cases jealously, and in other cases withheld altogether. The degree to which organizational communications can really be â€Å"managed† depends wholly on leadership buy in and support, since employees pattern their behavior, including their communication styles, based largely on their own perception of what type of communication succeeds in the organization (Anaeto, 2010). Incentives for participating in knowledge management then hinges on its perceived value in the organization’s culture. In a team oriented organizational culture, where knowledge sharing occurs freely and the leadership rewards teamwork financially or through titles, then knowledge management will tend to be embraced.Advertising Looking for essay on business communication? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Conversely, in an organizational culture that values employee competition, communication and knowledge management activity will likely resemble more of a faà §ade, since employees tend to share only that knowledge that furthers their individual goals as opposed to the goals of the organization. The leadership of any given organization defines its culture, and an organization’s culture defines its communication approach (World Bank, 2010). This reality, though hinted at in Communication or knowledge management, Jensen downplayed significantly and somewhat naively: â€Å"it’s likely that there are many factors preventing you from shifting from communication deliverables to knowledge management practices. Leadership, technology, budgets, staffing or even bad hair days may be legitimate reasons you’re being held back† (Jensen, 1998). A leader who is an effective communicator can balance â€Å"needs to create strong interpersonal relationships and accomplish tasks, maintain a balance between order and chaos within the organization, and use rewards and punishments to motivate followers† (World Bank, 2010). In order for organizational communications to facilitate effective knowledge management objectives, communication and knowledge management must be presented as â€Å"clear elevating goal[s]† for employees, and not simply by the communications department or knowledge management specialists, but by the organization’s leadership itself. â€Å"High performance teams have both a clear understanding of the goal to be achieved and a belief that the goal embodies a worthwhile or important result† (World Bank, 2010). The leader of an organization also sets its mode of communicating; the leader’s communication style of choice will influence the perceived value of knowledge management in the organization. If the leadership communicates the value of knowledge management through organizational communication materi als such as key messages yet employees perceive no action or implementation as a result of knowledge management, it will be seriously undermined and in some cases disregarded entirely. Leadership also defines how communication occurs in the organization. In a centralized network â€Å"information is funneled through a small number of individuals within an organization,† and leaders tend to value a rigid hierarchy within the organizational structure (World Bank, 2010). In such cultures, organizational communications and knowledge management are likely to be in competition with each other for attention from leadership, nullifying any net impact of either discipline on employee’s desire for â€Å"sense making† (Jensen, 1998). Conversely, a â€Å"decentralized network exists when information is shared widely among and flows through many individuals within an organization† (World Bank, 2010). On the whole these types of organizations â€Å"employ relatively f lat hierarchies by relying on flexible emergent communication†¦develop flexible relationships with the network of organizations that go beyond the local country bound network†¦use information technology to coordinate units and members located in different geographic locations†¦[and] emphasize the use of autonomous, self-managing teams† (World Bank, 2010). Organizational cultures of this ilk likely support and nurture organizational communications, and knowledge management becomes a core value of organization’s leadership. In conclusion, Jensen’s vision of a working partnership between organizational communications and knowledge management can materialize only if and when the organization’s leadership encourages such a union. Should the organizational culture place low value on communications and knowledge management, or if the organization’s culture remains deeply hierarchical and lacks the skills and interest to implement organizatio nal communication and knowledge management as a core value of leadership, organizational communications will run the risk of discrediting knowledge management. References Abrahamson, E. (2004). Change Without Pain: How Managers Can Overcome Initiative Overload, Organizational Chaos and Employee Burnout. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Anaeto, S.G. (2010). Managing organizational culture for effective communication. The Social Sciences, 5(2), 70-75. Jensen, B. (1998). Communication or knowledge management? Communication World, 15 (6), 44-48. Web. World Bank. (2010). Organizational communication. Washington DC: World Bank. Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTGOVACC/Resources/OrganizationalCommweb.pdf This essay on When Communications Undermine Knowledge Management was written and submitted by user Ayla Velasquez to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Indirect Quotations

Indirect Quotations Indirect Quotations Indirect Quotations By Maeve Maddox Colorful, striking direct quotations enliven a news story, but not everything an interview subject says is worth quoting in its entirety. An hour of note-taking might result in a lot of information, but little in the way of pithy remarks. It’s the writer’s job to distinguish between what’s worth quoting verbatim, and what would be better paraphrased. For example, you have interviewed numerous students and faculty about a university decision against arming teaching staff. Their comments are all very similar, so you decide not to quote them directly. Instead, you quote them indirectly: Students and faculty interviewed for this story said they were relieved by the decision. Certain alterations must be made when turning a direct quotation into reported speech. Verbs, pronouns, and time adverbials are changed: Direct quotation: â€Å"I plan to climb Mount McKinley tomorrow.† Indirect quotation: Jones said he planned to climb Mount McKinley the following day. Direct quotation: â€Å"At the moment I’m performing at the Citadel, but next week I’ll be joining the cast of Grease at the Odeon.† Indirect quotation: Jack Riprock said that at the time he was playing at the Citadel, but that the following week he would be joining the cast of Grease at the Odeon. Go becomes went, is becomes was, will becomes would, and so on. Now becomes then, today becomes that day, yesterday becomes the day before, etc. The personal pronoun I becomes he or she, us becomes them, etc. The transformed quotation is frequently phrased as a noun clause introduced by that: She said that she would never forget the day she almost died. Here are some verbs other than say that a writer can use to introduce an indirect quotation: add, admit, agree, announce, answer, argue, boast, claim, comment, complain, confirm, consider, deny, doubt, estimate, explain, fear, feel, insist, mention, observe, persuade, propose, remark, remember, repeat, reply, report, reveal, state, suggest, suppose, tell, think, understand, warn, ask, know, remember, see, decide, expect, guarantee, hope, promise, swear, threaten, advise, beg, prefer, recommend, request, describe, discover, discuss, forget, guess, imagine, learn, realize, wonder, command, forbid, instruct, invite. Note, the word that does not always have to be expressed: She said she would never forget the day she almost died. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:45 Synonyms for â€Å"Food†Round vs. AroundMankind vs. Humankind

The History and Domestication of Goats

The History and Domestication of Goats Goats (Capra hircus) were among the first domesticated animals, adapted from the wild bezoar ibex Capra aegargus in western Asia. Bezoar ibexes are native to the southern slopes of the Zagros and Taurus mountains, and evidence shows that the goat descendants spread globally, playing an important role in the advancement of Neolithic agricultural technology where they were taken. Beginning between 10,000-11,000 years ago, Neolithic farmers in the Near East starting keeping small herds of ibexes for their milk and meat, and for their dung for fuel, as well as for materials for clothing and building: hair, bone, skin, and sinew. Today over 300 breeds of goats exist on our planet, living on every continent except Antarctica and in a quite astonishing range of environments, from human tropical rain forests to dry hot desert regions and cold, hypoxic high altitude regions. Because of this variety, the domestication history was a bit obscure until the development of DNA research. Where Goats Originated Domestication in goats has been recognized archaeologically by the presence and abundance of the animal into regions that were well beyond western Asia, by perceived changes in their body size and shape (called morphology), by differences in demographic profiles in wild and domestic groups, and by stable isotope recognition of their dependence on year-round fodders. Archaeological data suggested two distinct places of domestication: the Euphrates river valley at Nevali Çori, Turkey (11,000 years ago [bp], and the Zagros Mountains of Iran at Ganj Dareh (10,000 bp). Other possible sites of domestication posed by archaeologists included the Indus Basin in Pakistan at (Mehrgarh, 9,000 bp), central Anatolia the southern Levant, and China. Divergent Goat Lineages Studies on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences (Luikart et al) indicate there are four highly divergent goat lineages today. Luikart and colleagues suggested that means either there were four domestication events, or there is a broad level of diversity that was always there in the bezoar ibex. A study by Gerbault and colleagues supported Luikarts findings, suggesting the extraordinary variety of genes in modern goats arose from one or more domestication events from the Zagros and Taurus mountains and the southern Levant, followed by interbreeding and continued development in other places. A study on the frequency of genetic haplotypes (basically gene variation packages) in goats by Nomura and colleagues suggests that it is possible there may have been a southeast Asian domestication event as well, but its also possible that during the transport to southeast Asia via the steppe region of central Asia, goat groups developed extreme bottlenecks, resulting in fewer variations. Goat Domestication Processes Makarewicz and Tuross looked at stable isotopes in goat and gazelle bones from two sites on either side of the Dead Sea in Israel: Middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) site of Abu Ghosh and the Late PPNB site of Basta. They showed that gazelles (used as a control group) eaten by the occupants of the two sites maintained a consistently wild diet, but goats from the later Basta site had a significantly different diet than goats from the earlier site. The main difference in the oxygen and nitrogen stable isotopes of the goats suggests that Basta goats had access to plants that were from a wetter environment than that near where they were eaten. That was likely the result of either the goats being herded to a wetter environment during some part of the year  or that they were provisioned by fodder from those locations. That indicates that people were managing goats in so far as moving them from pasture to pasture and/or providing fodder by as early as 8000 cal BC; and that was likely part of a process that began earlier still, perhaps during the early PPNB (8500-8100 cal BC), coinciding with reliance on plant cultivars. Important Goat Sites Important archaeological sites with evidence for the initial process of goat domestication include Cayà ¶nà ¼, Turkey (8500-8000 BC), Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria (8000-7400 BC), Jericho, Israel (7500 BC), and Ain Ghazal, Jordan (7600-7500 BC). Sources Fernndez H, Hughes S, Vigne J-D, Helmer D, Hodgins G, Miquel C, Hnni C, Luikart G, and Taberlet P. 2006. Divergent mtDNA lineages of goats in an Early Neolithic site, far from the initial domestication areas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103(42):15375-15379.Gerbault P, Powell A, and Thomas MG. 2012. Evaluating demographic models for goat domestication using mtDNA sequences. Anthropozoologica 47(2):64-76.Luikart G, Gielly L, Excoffier L, Vigne J-D, Bouvet J, and Taberlet P. 2001. Multiple maternal origins and weak phylogeographic structure in domestic goats. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98:5927-5932.Makarewicz C, and Tuross N. 2012. Finding Fodder and Tracking Transhumance: Isotopic Detection of Goat Domestication Processes in the Near East. Current Anthropology 53(4):495-505.Naderi S, Rezaei H-R, Pompanon F, Blum MGB, Negrini R, Naghash H-R, Balkiz Ãâ€", Mashkour M, Gaggiotti OE, Ajmone-Marsan P et al. 2008. The goat domestication process inferr ed from large-scale mitochondrial DNA analysis of wild and domestic individuals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105(46):17659-17664. Naderi S, Rezaei H-R, Taberlet P, Zundel S, Rafat S-A, Naghash H-R, El-Barody MAA, Ertugrul O, Pompanon F, and for the Econogene C. 2007. Large-Scale Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of the Domestic Goat Reveals Six Haplogroups with High Diversity. PLoS ONE 2(10):e1012.Nomura K, Yonezawa T, Mano S, Kawakami S, Shedlock AM, Hasegawa M, and Amano T. 2013. Domestication Process of the Goat Revealed by an Analysis of the Nearly Complete Mitochondrial Protein-Encoding Genes. PLoS ONE 8(8):e67775.Vahidi SMF, Tarang AR, Naqvi A-u-N, Falahati Anbaran M, Boettcher P, Joost S, Colli L, Garcia JF, and Ajmone-Marsan P. 2014. Investigation of the genetic diversity of domestic Capra hircus breeds reared within an early goat domestication area in Iran. Genetics Selection Evolution 46(1):27.Zeder MA. 2001. A Metrical Analysis of a Collection of Modern Goats (Capra hircus aegargus and C. h. hircus) from Iran and Iraq: Implications for the Study of Caprine Domestication. Journal of Archaeological Science 28 (1):61-79. Zeder MA, and Hesse B. 2000. The Initial Domestication of Goats (Capra hircus) in the Zagros Mountains 10,000 Years Ago.Science 287:2254-2257.

Poverty Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Poverty - Research Paper Example Half of the world makes up about 3 billion people. Fourteen percent live on only a dollar a day. While eighty percent, live on less then ten dollars a day. This leads to people being hungry, adults and children dying from hunger. Pregnant women give birth to underweight children because of malnutrition. This leads to the death of twenty five thousand people a day. Disease is the number one factor that surrounds the poor. Aids and HIV are the diseases that kill most of the people in the third world countries. At the time, 40 million people are living with Aids and HIV infectious diseases. These infectious diseases mostly occur in countries with very poor economic status. Malaria is also a leading disease in poor nations. These diseases are mostly in Africa. In nations with poor economic statues such as Africa, many may believe it is the actual fault of the Individuals living in these poor nations, but it is not. It is the fault of the nation, region and especially because of international neglect. Many have tried to create strategies to introduce global poverty and by introducing these problems, the world can have a part in helping these poor third world countries where many are dying because of neglect. The United Nations created these groups. These groups include UN Millennium Development group (UNMDG), the Basic Income European Network (BIEN) and the Basic income Guarantee (BIG). The goals of the UN Millennium Development Group (UNMDG) is to stop poverty, send every child to school to get an education, to decrease the rate of child birth, bring about equality, equal global trading system, and preventing the spread of infectious disease such as HIV and Aid which are causing many to die. In this case, people may have security to live with no fear, human rights to live as they wish and in this case the United Nations would be stronger then before and the world can be one, helping each other and looking